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Spain is regarded in Europe as a leading example in the protection of women against violence. The country combines specialised courts, the police, support services, prevention measures and electronic monitoring into a comprehensive system. At the same time, new forms of digital violence, such as deepfake pornography or the case of Collien Fernandes, show that measures to protect against violence must be constantly adapted.
Intimate partner violence, stalking and new forms of digital violence: the current debate on deepfake pornography and the case of Collien Fernandes, who accuses her ex-husband Christian Ulmen of having distributed pornographic content under her name for years, clearly demonstrate the need for protective measures in Spain and Europe against violence against women.
Spain has understood precisely this and is regarded in Europe as a model for modern protection against violence. Since 2004, the Spanish model has combined criminal prosecution, victim protection, prevention, specialised courts and digital monitoring into a comprehensive system. That is why many countries look to Spain when it comes to better protection against violence against women.
Protection against violence in Spain: courts, police and support services
Women affected by violence can not only report the crime but also access counselling, medical care, legal support, social assistance and safe accommodation.
It is important to have dedicated agencies and courts that specialise in violence against women. The Juzgados de Violencia sobre la Mujer handle cases of gender-based violence and, under certain conditions, can also deal with related family law issues, such as separation, custody or protective measures. This means that victims do not have to navigate multiple legal proceedings simultaneously.
The police, forensic units and social services are also involved. They are tasked with identifying risks more quickly and coordinating protective measures more effectively. It is precisely this close cooperation between the various agencies that makes the Spanish system of interest to other countries.
Electronic tagging in Spain: protection against stalking
In German-speaking countries, the Spanish model is often associated with electronic tagging. Courts can prohibit perpetrators from approaching victims, entering certain places or making contact. Electronic monitoring can help to enforce such prohibitions.
The electronic tag therefore symbolises a more proactive approach to protection. The state does not simply wait for new offences to be committed, but seeks to monitor known risks. However, cooperation with the police, the judiciary and support services remains crucial. Without these structures, electronic monitoring alone would not constitute a comprehensive protection model.
VioGén: Spain’s risk assessment for violence against women
Another important tool is the police monitoring system VioGén. The aim is to collate information on gender-based violence and thus assess risks, coordinate protective measures and identify women at risk at an earlier stage.
Depending on the risk level, protective measures can be adapted, for example through closer police contact, monitoring of restraining orders or greater coordination with courts and support services. Such coordination can be crucial, particularly in cases of repeated violence, stalking or threats. However, it is important to note that such assessments only work effectively if authorities receive sufficient information and share it with one another.
Prevention of violence against women in Spain
The Spanish approach does not begin only after an act of violence has taken place. The 2004 law also includes measures in the fields of education, health and the media:
- Schools should raise awareness of gender equality and the prevention of violence.
- The health system should identify signs of violence at an earlier stage.
- Media campaigns should raise public awareness.
Work with perpetrators is also part of the model. This is intended to help prevent further violence. In doing so, Spain is taking a broader approach than mere law enforcement. Violence against women is instead understood as a societal problem affecting several areas of government and society.
The Pacto de Estado against gender-based violence is also significant. The State Pact was adopted in 2017 and subsequently renewed. It brings together measures against violence against women and aims to strengthen cooperation between the state, regions, the judiciary, the education sector, the health system and support services. The renewed pact comprises 461 measures. According to the Spanish Ministry for Equality, implementation had begun on 235 measures – 51 per cent – by December 2025. This does not necessarily mean that the actual implementation has been fully completed.
The Spanish model against violence against women: origins and objectives
The Spanish model is based on Organic Law 1/2004, the law on integrated measures to combat gender-based violence. It was passed at the end of 2004 and established a comprehensive legal framework to combat violence against women. Spain thus ceased to treat such violence as a private matter but rather as a consequence of discrimination, inequality and power dynamics between men and women.
The law primarily covers violence perpetrated by current or former partners, including physical, psychological and sexual violence, as well as threats, coercion and deprivation of liberty. Other forms, such as sexual violence outside relationships or digital violence, were only incorporated more fully at a later stage.
How effective is the Spanish model in combating violence against women?
A study published in the Journal of Public Economics in 2024 examined judicial data from Spain for the years 2005 to 2018. It concludes that the introduction of specialised courts increased reported cases of intimate partner violence by around 28 per cent. This makes it easier for victims to access protection and legal support. This is precisely where a key strength of the Spanish model lies. The effect is particularly evident in cases of moderate-severity offences. However, the authors found no clear evidence of a reduction in homicides.
Digital violence against women: a new challenge for Spain
At the same time, violence against women remains a major problem in Spain: according to a large-scale government survey in Spain, the 2024 Macroencuesta de Violencia contra la Mujer, 12.7 per cent of women aged 16 and over reported having experienced physical and/or sexual violence at the hands of a partner.
In addition, new challenges are emerging from digital violence. These include online harassment, identity theft, the dissemination of intimate images without consent, and sexualised deepfakes. Spain is incorporating such forms more fully into its protection against violence: the Macroencuesta 2024 now also covers digital assaults and stalking. This makes it clearer how frequently women are affected online as well.
The issue is also gaining importance within the EU. An EU directive obliges member states to take stronger action against digital violence. This includes, for example, the dissemination of intimate or manipulated images without consent. The debate on deepfakes in Spain is therefore part of a wider trend in Europe.
Deepfake law in Spain: Protection against sexualised AI images
The proposed deepfake regulation forms part of the debate on protection against digital violence.
One catalyst was the Almendralejo case. In 2023, AI-generated nude images of underage schoolgirls circulated in the Spanish town. The case demonstrated that, whilst existing laws do cover some forms of digital violence, they do not always adequately address new technical forms.
The proposal is not purely a law on the protection of women, but part of a broader project to protect minors in the digital space. It is intended to cover the dissemination of artificially generated or manipulated images, depictions of the body and voices without consent, where the person concerned is thereby seriously degraded or exposed.
In addition, the government announced further AI regulations in January 2026. A person’s image, voice and likeness are to be given greater protection. Satirical or clearly labelled fictional content is to be exempt.
The Collien Fernandes case: Report filed in Spain over digital abuse
The Collien Fernandes case has also drawn attention to the Spanish model. The German actress and presenter filed a report in Spain against her ex-partner Christian Ulmen. She accuses him of running fake profiles under her name for years and using them to distribute pornographic material. According to the allegations, this created the impression that the content originated from her or depicted her. Ulmen denies the allegations.
The Spanish judiciary initially opened proceedings but later handed the case over to the German authorities. Among other things, this was justified by strong links to Germany, such as the nationality of those involved, German-language content and possible locations of the offences.
The case highlights how difficult it is to address digital sexual violence in legal terms when a person’s identity, image and voice are manipulated or misused without their consent. At the same time, it has brought into focus the question of whether Germany adequately protects victims of digital violence and why Spain is perceived as a stricter benchmark in such cases.
Criticism of Spain’s domestic violence protection system: where the model falls short
Despite its good reputation, the Spanish model has come in for criticism. Frauenhauskoordinierung e.V. points out that, even 20 years after the 2004 law was passed, not everything has yet been implemented. The association also criticises shortcomings in the system: those affected can be subjected to further stress by authorities or legal proceedings, and in some cases even suffer additional harm as a result of state procedures. Furthermore, there is a lack of proper monitoring to ensure that the measures are actually effective.
GREVIO, a Council of Europe expert body, also continues to identify problems. Whilst it commends Spain’s reforms, it calls for improvements in practice. This includes more training for the judiciary, the police, and the social, health and education sectors. Furthermore, women in particularly vulnerable situations should be given better access to protection and support.
Moreover, the 2004 law primarily covers violence by partners or ex-partners. Other forms of violence against women were only given greater consideration later on. The Spanish model is therefore not a finished success story, but is being continuously expanded.
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